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It consists of lipids (phospholipids womens health kaley cuoco discount 5mg aygestin amex, cholesterol and glycolipids) breast cancer 8 cm tumor order cheap aygestin online, carbohydrates women's healthy eating tips cheap aygestin online mastercard, proteins and glycoproteins. These form a compact bundle which is present immediately beneath the platelet membrane and encircles the whole cytoplasm. These are responsible for maintenance of the discoid shape of circulating platelets. Cytoplasm of the platelets contains Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, few mitochondria, microtubules, microvesicles, filaments, granules, glycogen, lysosomes, proteins, enzymes and hormonal substances. These structures synthesize various enzymes and store large quantities of calcium. Actin and myosin molecules are similar to those of contractile proteins of the muscles. Contractile proteins can cause the platelet to contract and are thus responsible for the clot retraction. It causes growth of vascular endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts; and thus is involved in the repair of damaged blood vessels. Prostaglandins act as local hormones and have local vascular and tissue reactions. Whenever there is injury to the vessel wall, platelets adhere to the exposed collagen and the von Willebrand factor, to their receptors present on the platelet membrane. Platelet binding causes their activation which results in release of contents of the granules. Haemostasis refers to spontaneous arrest of bleeding from an injured blood vessel. Process of clot formation involves a complex series of events (described on page 209). Platelets play an important role in the formation of the intrinsic prothrombin activator which is responsible for the onset of blood clotting. Contractions of contractile proteins (actin, myosin and thrombosthenin) present in the platelets play an important role in clot retraction. These are particularly helpful in phagocytosis of carbon particles, viruses and immune complexes. In infections like smallpox, chicken pox, scarlet fever, typhoid and dengue fever. Formation of platelets Formation or development of platelets is called thrombopoiesis. The earliest recognizable precursor of platelets in the bone marrow is megakaryoblast. Platelets are formed from pseudopodia of megakaryocyte cytoplasm which get detached into the blood stream. Thrombopoietin promotes maturation of megakaryocytes and is a circulating protein produced by the liver and kidney.

Certain viruses and many drugs (like nicotine and barbiturates) can easily cross the placental barrier and may produce harmful effect on the foetus women's health boot camp buy 5mg aygestin with amex. Therefore breast cancer graphics aygestin 5mg without prescription, as far as possible one should avoid these drugs and smoking during pregnancy breast cancer quotes for family purchase aygestin on line. Pregnancy tests In an adult healthy woman amenorrhoea is the first sign of pregnancy, but it occurs in many other conditions as well. Therefore, detection of early pregnancy is made possible by certain pregnancy tests. The urine of the pregnant woman is injected either by intraperitoneal or subcutaneous route into the female virigin animal, there occurs ovulation which is detected as haemorrhagic spots on the corpora lutea. Ascheim-Zondek test Urine (2-5ml) from pregnant woman is injec ted (intraperitoneal/subc utaneous) into an immature mic e 2-3 times in a day for 2-3 days. Galli-Mainini test 3 to 5 ml urine is injec ted into lymph sac of male frog (xenopus). Criteria for positive test On third day abdomen is opened and ovaries are examined. After 2 hours urine is withdrawn from c loac a of male frog and presenc e of sperms in the urine indic ates +ve pregnanc y test. Although biological tests are very sensitive but nowadays, they are replaced by immunological tests of pregnancy because of convenience and immediate results. There will be agglutination, because urine of non-pregnant subject does not contain antigen therefore, antibodies are not neutralized. Thus occurrence of agglutination indicates no pregnancy or pregnancy test is negative. To accommodate the growing foetus marked increase in the size of uterus takes place. The enlargement is mainly due to hypertrophy and to some extent hyperplasia of the myometrial smooth muscle fibres. The amount of connective tissue and elastic tissue in between muscle fibres also increases. The muscle fibres increase in diameter (2 to 7 times) and length (2 to 11 times), and form interlacing network around blood vessels. The contraction of these fibres prevent blood loss from raw surface of placenta after delivery of placenta. Sometimes, if contraction of uterus is not proper then excessive postpartum haemorrhage occurs. The changes in the uterus occur in first and second months of pregnancy under the influence of oestrogen and subsequent enlargement is due to growing foetus. By this time placenta takes over the functions of secretion of oestrogens and progesterone. Hyperplasia of ductal and alveolar tissue occurs, the areola becomes pigmented and many sebaceous glands become prominent in the areola. Absence of weight gain in the second or third trimester is a sign of foetal growth retardation and foetal death.

Like any other cell it consists of a mass of cytoplasm with all its principal constituents surrounded by a cell membrane women's health clinic birth control order aygestin 5mg on-line. The cell body contains a large nucleus with one or two nucleoli but there is no centrosome menstruation pronunciation purchase aygestin in united states online. The absence of centrosome indicates that the neuron has lost ability for division menopause bleeding purchase aygestin with a mastercard. These are basophilic granules, and when seen under electron microscope these bodies seem to be composed of rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum. The presence of abundant granular endoplasmic reticulum is an indication of the high level of protein synthesis in neurons. The proteins are needed for the maintenance and repair and for the production of neurotransmitters and enzymes. The Nissl bodies are present in the dendrites as well, but are usually absent from axon hillock and the axon. These bodies disintegrate into fine dust and finally disappear (chromatolysis) on fatigue, due to the effect of certain poisons and on sectioning of the axon. The presence of a network of neurofibrillae in the cytoplasm of the neuron is another distinctive feature. These often look thorny due to numerous minute projections called spines present on their surface. Dendrites are the receptive processes of the neuron receiving signals from other neurons via their synapses with axon terminals. The synaptic inputs produce graded local potentials which get algebraically summated on the surface of dendrites. It arises from the conical extension of the cell body called axon hillock, which is devoid of Nissl bodies. The part of the axon between the axon hillock and the beginning of the myelin sheath is called the initial segment. In the axon, the cell membrane continues as axolemma and the cytoplasm as axoplasm. The axon terminates by dividing into a number of branches, each ending in a number of synaptic knobs also known as terminal buttons or axon telodendria. Synaptic knobs contain microvesicles in which chemical neurotransmitters are stored. The Schwann cell wraps its membranes about 100 times around an axon and then the myelin is compacted by an extracellular membrane protein called protein zero (Po). In the central nervous system of mammals myelin sheath is formed by oligodendrocytes rather than Schwann cells. Myelination of axons increases the speed of conduction and greatly increases their diameter. Hence motor neurons to muscles and sensory (proprioceptive) fibres from muscles are heavily myelinated. Axons perform the specialized function of conducting impulses away from the cell body. A pplied A spects In demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis there occurs patchy destruction of myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies and white blood cells attack the myelin sheath leading to inflammation and injury to myelin sheath. Due to loss of myelin sheath there is leakage of K+ through voltage-gated channels resulting in hyperpolarization and thus failure of action potential conduction. Sign and symptoms: In patients with multiple sclerosis the physiological deficit ranges from muscle weakness, fatigue, diminished motor function & sensory disturbances. Nerve conduction tests which detect slow conduction in motor and sensory pathways. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis which detects oligoclonal bands indicative of an abnormal autoimmune response against myelin sheath. Treatment: Although there is no specific treatment of multiple sclerosis, drugs like interferon can suppress autoimmune response.

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Excretion of specific hormones and granules by the cells is termed as emiocytosis womens health department cheap aygestin online amex. In this process the proteins from the Golgi apparatus initially enter in the secretory granules women's health big book of exercises download cheap aygestin online american express, where processing of prohormones to mature hormones occur before exocytosis women's health center san francisco order 5mg aygestin otc. It involves the prompt transport of proteins to the cell membrane in vesicles, with little or no processing or storage. Transcytosis Vesicular transport within the cell is called transcytosis or cytopemisis. Three basic steps involved in this process are (i) vesicle formation, (ii) vesicle transportation and (iii) docking in the cell. Role of various proteins in vesicular transport the vesicles involved in the transport are coated with proteins. Each target cell has a set of docking proteins (V snare protein) and latch proteins (T snare protein). The vesicle, when it reaches its target cell, then these proteins ensure that the vesicle will dock with the corresponding set of docking proteins. Other transport processes So far we have considered transport across the cell membrane, i. In addition to it, there are many situations in the body where transport of substances occurs through the epithelia and the capillary endothelial cell membrane. Transport across epithelia Transport across epithelia involves movement of the substances from one side of the epithelium to the other. The transepithelial transport occurs in body cavities lined by continuous sheet of cells such as in gastrointestinal tract, renal tubules, pulmonary airways and other structures. For transepithelial transport to occur, the cells need to be bound by tight junctions, and have different ion channels and transport protein in different parts of their membrane. In gastro-intestinal tract and in urinary tubules substances are transferred from the lumen into the epithelial cells at their apical borders and then from the basal borders of the cells into interstitial fluid. From the interstitial fluid the substances are finally transported into the blood through the capillaries. It has been identified that in the epithelia of small intestine, proximal renal tubules and gall bladder, most of the sodium chloride passes through the tight junctions (areas of tight adherence between the two adjacent cells) rather than traversing the whole length of the epithelial cells. Ultrafiltration When a solution of protein and salt is separated from plain water or a less concentrated salt solution by a membrane permeable to salt and water and not to the protein, there will be a net movement of water on the protein side by diffusion and a movement of salt away from the protein side. The pressure is 35 mmHg near the arteriolar end and gradually declines to 12 mmHg near the venous end of the capillary. Through the capillaries there occurs ultrafiltration of all the constituents of the plasma except the proteins into the interstitial spaces. Plasma proteins, to which the capillary wall is not permeable, exert an osmotic pressure of about 25 mmHg. This potential difference is named membrane potential, because the cations and anions arrange themselves along the outer and inner surfaces of the cell membrane. The magnitude of membrane potential varies from cell to cell and in a particular cell varies according to its functional status. For example, a nerve cell has a membrane potential of -70 mV (inside negative) at rest, but when it gets excited the membrane potential becomes about +30 mV (inside positive). The membrane potential at rest is called resting membrane potential or resting transmembrane potential or simply resting potential. The term rest does not imply that the cell is metabolically quiescent but that it is not undergoing any electrical change. The membrane potential measured during the excited state of the cell is called action potential. For details of action potential see page 61 Genesis of membrane potential Membrane potential is basically due to unequal distribution of ions across the cell membrane, which in turn results due to the combined effect of various forces acting on the ions. The cell membrane is freely permeable to K+ and Cl- and moderately permeable to Na+. In other words, the energy required to separate water from Na+ is greater as compared to K+, so the K+ permeability is higher than Na+.